From a cross-cultural perspective the equation between public leadership and dominance is questionable. What does one mean by ‘dominance’? Does it indicate coercion? Or control over ‘the most valued’? ‘Political’ systems may be about both, either, or conceivably neither. The idea of ‘control’ would be a bothersome one for many peoples, as for instance among many native peoples of Amazonia where all members of a community are fond of their personal autonomy and notably allergic to any obvious expression of control or coercion. The conception of political power as a coercive force, while it may be a Western fixation, is not a universal. It is very unusual for an Amazonian leader to give an order. If many peoples do not view political power as a coercive force, nor as the most valued domain, then the leap from ‘the political’ to ‘domination’ (as coercion), and from there to ‘domination of women’, is a shaky one. As Marilyn Strathern has remarked, the notions of ‘the political’ and ‘political personhood’ are cultural obsessions of our own, a bias long reflected in anthropological constructs.

What happens to our personalities when serious life events occur? Studies on lottery winners show that, after an initial stage of euphoria, people tend to return to their baseline levels of positivity or negativity — e.g., when grumpy people win the lottery they are happy for a few weeks, but after that they go back to being as grumpy as they usually are. By the same token, when optimistic or positive people suffer big setbacks — e.g. the death of a relative, job loss, or divorce — it does not take them too long to bounce back. In short, though life experiences affect our behaviours, personality determines how we respond to those experiences, so it is unusual for any episode to create major, longstanding changes in a person’s personality.

In a study performed by Margaret Shih and her colleagues at Harvard, a group of Asian women were given similar math tests on two separate occasions. The first time around, they were primed to think about the fact that they were women, stereotypically worse at math than men. The second time around, they were told to focus on their identity as Asians, generally thought to be math whizzes compared to other ethnic groups. The women performed far better in the second situation than they did in the first. Their math IQs hadn’t changed and neither had the difficulty of the questions. But in the second instance they believed more in their ability, and this was enough to make a substantive difference in the test results.

We need to consider dance as functioning within systems of exchange because of the changes in the world economy that have taken place in the last forty or so years. Prior to this period dance was often conceptualized either as an artistic pursuit whose economy lay outside and beyond the world of conventional commerce, or as a form of pleasure that diverted or replenished the laboring body. However, with the burgeoning of service industries and the consolidation of a pervasive culture of measuring and calculating human activity in terms of its productivity, even dance has been assimilated into ________. Now frequently construed as a form of labor, a concept that has begun to infuse every aspect of life, dance participates as part of the global capitalist and neoliberal world order that Randy Martin described as “a triumphant ideology that replaces state with markets, public with private values, and a liberal consensus with a conservative hegemony.”

Among the many discoveries NASA made when it began sending people into space was the fact that pens do not work well in zero gravity. The ink wouldn’t flow properly. To overcome the problem, NASA gathered several teams of mechanical, chemical, and hydrodynamic engineers. NASA spent millions of dollars to develop what became known as the “space pen.” The space pen was very effective. It worked in zero gravity and even worked under water. At the same time, the Soviets solved the problem as well, but much more cheaply and effectively. They supplied their cosmonauts with pencils. The NASA scientists were grounded in ________. Despite the fact that many of the engineers working on the problem probably used pencils themselves, they failed to see that there was an inexpensive and reliable low-tech solution readily available. They saw the problem as “How might we make a pen write in zero gravity?” rather than simply “How might we write in zero gravity?”

Born in Paris, France, in 1861, Georges Méliès was a hugely influential figure in the creation of cinema and special effects. Though often overlooked in favor of the Lumière brothers, Méliès had a critical role in the development of cinema. In fact, the Lumière brothers proved to be a catalyst for the career of Méliès when in December 1895 the brothers publicly demonstrated their Cinématographe, the film projector. Méliès was captivated by the Cinématographe’s magical potential and was determined to have a film projector of his own. When the Lumière refused to sell him theirs, he had a similar machine built, which came to be known as the kinetograph. Whereas the Lumière brothers concentrated on producing short films rooted in realism and their vision of an orderly universe, Méliès specialized in fantastic, magical stories using special effects.

Méliès started his career in entertainment by appearing as an illusionist at a number of Parisian venues, including the Cabinet Fantastique, while at the same time developing a keen interest in photography. In 1888, he purchased the Theater Robert-Houdin in Paris, where he refined his skills as a performer, designer, and producer while staging magic shows. He would go on to use many of the tricks he developed during this time in his films.

Méliès created his first film with his kinetograph camera in 1896 and screened it to an enthralled audience at the Robert-Houdin, and later that year ⓐa happy accident occurred what has since become legend. While filming an everyday street scene, the camera Méliès was using jammed, and ⓑhe had to spend a few moments fixing it before he could restart filming. Later on when he processed the film, he noticed that objects suddenly appeared, disappeared, or were transformed into other objects. Through this fortunate occurrence, Méliès recognized that ⓒnot only his kinetograph could be used to record magic but also that magic could be created within the camera itself.

With his newfound skill for manipulating and distorting time and space, Méliès went on to develop a series of complex special effects, pioneering the first double exposure and the first split-screen shot with actors performing more than one part in the same scene, as well as tricks such as slow motion and fade-out. By 1901, Méliès was way ahead of his American counterparts, utilizing editing to improve special effects. In his 1901 film The Man with the Rubber Head, Méliès employed specially built platforms to create the illusion of enlarging objects. He went on to construct sophisticated models, such as an exploding volcano in The Eruption of Mount Pelee (1902). In A Trip to the Moon (1902), his best-known science-fiction film, by combining stage tricks, camera tricks, and a number of animation types, he used a cannon to shoot a spaceship into the eye of a face he had created in the moon. In some of his other works, he sliced people in two and transformed humans into beasts. ⓔThrough these techniques, Méliès laid the foundations for countless special effects that are now taken for granted and can still be seen in modern blockbusters.

The Fremont people were a pre-Columbian archaeological culture which existed between 400 and 1300 AD. They were named after the Fremont River in Utah where the first Fremont sites were discovered. The culture was characterized by small-scale, scattered communities whose primary means of subsistence was farming. They were originally considered to be a part of the neighboring Anasazi culture, but are now considered to be a distinct culture that migrated into the area which encompasses present-day Utah.

In fact, there are several artifact categories of the Fremont culture which mark it as distinct. For instance, they developed a particular way of making baskets called one-rod-and-bundle baskets in which fibers were wrapped around one rod which circled the basket. Some archaeologists contend that Fremont culture can be defined on the basis of this artifact alone because it differed markedly from the way in which the Anasazi constructed baskets.

Moccasin and clay figurines are other artifacts that distinguish the Fremont culture from others that existed at the same time. Moccasins were constructed from the hock of deer or sheep leg which formed the heel of the shoe. This style of moccasin differs greatly from the woven sandals of the Anasazi. Similarly, the clay figurines, which were three-dimensional and used for ceremonial rites, were also unique. Human shaped and adorned with necklaces made from bone and stone, they display a high level of artistry.

Another important piece of evidence that shows Fremont culture was unique is their thin-walled gray pottery. The pottery, which has stayed intact over hundreds of years, is what ties the scattered Fremont tribes together. What distinguishes this pottery is the material from which it is made. The Fremont added various kinds of granular rock and sand to wet clay to insure even drying and to prevent cracking.

The Fremont culture vanished sometime between 1250 and 1500 AD. Although the exact reasons for their disappearance are unknown, many scholars concur that it was caused by the migration of other tribes. Because they were full-time hunter-gatherers, it is likely that these tribes displaced the part-time Fremont hunter-gatherers by competing for scarce resources. The fact that classic Fremont artifacts were replaced with different styles of basketry, pottery, and art at this time indicates that the Fremont people were indeed driven out of the region and replaced by a migrating tribe.

One example of such a triad was gold, silver, and copper.

The modern periodic table as we know it today was first published by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869. Unlike others, Mendeleev correctly predicted that some elements were still undiscovered. For this reason he didn’t fill out blanks in his table corresponding to atomic masses 44, 68, 72, and 100, spots which would later be filled by scandium, gallium, germanium, and technetium. He also repositioned certain elements in previous tables after observing the atomic masses assigned to beryllium, indium, and uranium were inaccurate.

However, Mendeleev의 표에서 빠져있던 것은 비활성 기체 였는데, which Sir William Ramsay discovered between 1894 and 1898, the first of which was argon, which had an atomic mass of 40. Because this mass was similar to potassium’s but greater than chlorine’s, he decided to insert the noble gases between the alkali metals and halogens. But it would be British physicist H. G. J. Mosely, who by studying the frequencies of X-rays emitted by the elements in 1913, demonstrated that the elements were better arranged according to their atomic number rather than their atomic mass, thereby providing a theoretical framework beyond Mendeleev’s simple observations.

Scientists did not know a lot about Neptune until NASA’s unmanned spacecraft Voyager 2 traveled 2.6 billion miles across space and passed the planet in 1989. Neptune is a gas giant, about four times bigger than the earth, with a small solid core and an outer atmosphere made up mostly of hydrogen and helium.

When visible light travels from one substance into another, the light waves may experience a phenomenon called refraction, ⓐwhich involve the light bending or changing its direction. In the latter part of the seventeenth century, Sir Isaac Newton carried out a number of experiments dealing with the refraction of light that resulted in his discovery of the visible light spectrum. Newton situated a glass prism in front of a narrow ray of sunlight ⓑcome from a hole made in a window shutter inside a darkened room. An ordered spectrum of color ⓒcould be witnessed being projected onto a screen behind the prism when the sunlight passed through the prism. This experiment allowed Newton to demonstrate that ⓓwhite light is consisted of a series of colors: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet.

Furthermore, Newton revealed that the color spectrum could refract the white light back together. By placing a second prism nearby the first, Newton showed that when all of the dispersed colors traveled through the second prism, they combined again into white light. This was conclusive evidence ⓔwhich white light is made up of a spectrum of colors that can easily be divided and reunited.

Unveiled to the world at a meeting of the French Academy of Sciences in Paris on August 19, 1839, the daguerreotype process was the first practical method of obtaining permanent images with a camera. It was able to capture very fine, rich details that offered a mirror image of the original scene and seemed to possess three dimensions. The daguerreotype was the Polaroid of its time, producing a single image which was not reproducible.

Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre, a French artist, perfected this method. In 1829, he forged a partnership with Joseph Nicéphore Niépce, a French amateur scientist and inventor who had succeeded in securing a picture of the view from his window by using a camera obscura and pewter plate in 1826. Niépce named his picture-making process heliography and was able to produce the world’s first permanent photograph using it. However, his process was not commercially feasible because of the lengthy exposure time it required ― the subject and camera had to remain motionless for up to 8 hours to form the image.

 Following Niépce’s death in 1833, Daguerre continued to experiment on his own in search of an improved method to produce images with a camera. By 1837, he had finalized a process based on heliography and claimed the invention of “the daguerreotype” as his own. Daguerre’s process replaced Niepce’s pewter plate and resin with silver-plated copper sheets and iodine, and he also employed warm mercury vapor to drastically reduce the exposure time of his photographic images from a number of hours to twenty to thirty minutes.

Following Niépce’s death in 1833, Daguerre continued to experiment on his own in search of an ①enhanced method to produce images with a camera. By 1837, he had finalized a process based on heliography and claimed the invention of “the daguerreotype” as his own. Daguerre’s process replaced Niepce’s pewter plate and resin with silver-plated copper sheets and iodine, and he also employed warm mercury vapor to ②significantly reduce the exposure time of his photographic images from a number of hours to twenty to thirty minutes.

The American public quickly seized on the opportunity to produce a “truthful likeness” of an image with a relatively short exposure time. Various improvements completed within a year of the invention’s initial disclosure further ③reduced the required exposure time to mere seconds, ensuring that the daguerreotype would become the first commercially ④feasible photographic process. Before long, a profitable market for daguerreotype portraiture arose, and by 1850 there were over 70 daguerreotype studios in New York City. However, after enjoying ten years of widespread use, the popularity of the daguerreotype ⑤increased in the late 1850s upon the introduction of the ambrotype, a faster and less expensive photographic process.